This blog post examines the historical background and specific examples of how Sufi orders, leveraging their spiritual authority and community organizational strength, led long-term resistance against imperialist invasion.
Beginning in the late 18th century, the Islamic world faced full-scale imperialist invasions, prompting Muslim believers to resist in diverse ways. Among these, a particularly notable phenomenon was the Sufi orders leading military resistance in various regions. The struggles in Algeria, Libya, and Sudan stand out as representative examples. So how were they able to endure the pressure of the great powers for such a significant period and maintain continuous resistance?
Sufism is a mystical tradition pursuing personal salvation through spiritual union with God. Sufis, followers of Sufism, sought to escape worldly desires, entrust everything to God, and practice an ascetic life. Sufism began to take root in the early 8th century, and by the 9th century, a distinct mystical consciousness had clearly formed. However, the personal spiritual journey of the Sufi sometimes carried the risk of losing one’s way or falling into self-absorption. Therefore, they revered spiritual predecessors as masters and had to follow their guidance almost blindly. Within this process, Sufis began forming orders by the end of the 10th century. Sufi orders experienced cycles of rise and fall depending on region and era, yet gradually secured many adherents and expanded their social base.
In North Africa, Sufi orders declined for a time but were powerfully reorganized after the 18th century. These orders served as missionary and educational institutions while also becoming the focal points of living communities by integrating closely with local societies. This provided them with the necessary foundation for resistance. One factor enabling Sufi leaders in this region to reconcile tribal differences and unite members against foreign powers was religious authority. Particularly, the fact that Abd al-Qadir, who led the Algerian uprising, and Ahmad al-Sharif, leader of the Libyan uprising, were revered as saints greatly aided in securing political authority.
Meanwhile, Wahhabism, the most stringent theological tendency within Sunni Islam, did not recognize the existence of saints. They even rejected the act of praying for blessings at the Prophet Muhammad’s tomb, viewing it as acknowledging divinity other than Allah. Sufism, however, actively acknowledged the existence of saints. Saints, called wali, were believed capable of performing miracles such as curing illness and infertility and warding off misfortune. Their tombs naturally became pilgrimage sites, and Sufi monasteries established around them often became centers of local communities.
Moreover, Sufi adherents in Northwest Africa, deeply influenced by the Berber indigenous faith that emphasized lineage, venerated the Murabit as a saint. While Murabit originally referred to Quranic scholars and religious teachers in general, in this region it specifically denoted the Wali leading a particular Sufi order. Murabit were revered as beings possessing divine grace, or baraka, and only a spiritually chosen few from specific lineages could attain this status. The Sharif family, descendants of the Prophet Muhammad, held such authority; both Abd al-Qadir and Ahmad al-Sharif were Murabit from this lineage.
In contrast, Muhammad Ahmad, the central figure of the Sudanese uprising in Northeast Africa, did not come from a saintly lineage. He gained religious authority by fulfilling the widespread expectation of the Mahdi’s arrival at that time, then transformed this into political authority, placing himself at the center of the uprising. In Islam, the Mahdi is understood as a savior who guides humanity onto the right path at the moment of the apocalypse, bringing justice and peace, while simultaneously being a reformist leader who eliminates injustice and establishes a theocratic state. Mahdi ideology originated in popular belief and spread widely; Sufis, particularly those strongly influenced by indigenous beliefs, were relatively open to accepting their order’s leader as the Mahdi. In 1881, Muhammad Ahmad declared himself the Mahdi, a being who reenacts the life and events of the Prophet Muhammad. Through this, he resolved conflicts among various Sufi orders and tribes, forming a united front against foreign powers.
Moreover, the brotherhood formed among those participating in Sufi rituals enabled the establishment of transnational networks and mutual cooperation. The Sufi orders at the heart of the resistance maintained monastery-centered organizations spanning multiple regions and countries. They provided substantial support to the resistance through information exchange, material procurement, and the provision of safe havens. This fusion of spiritual authority and material infrastructure allowed a religious group originally oriented toward nonviolent pacifism to sustain prolonged resistance against imperialist powers.
